Eastern Philosophies
Class Notes
I. History of Indian Thought
A. Due to the Indian lack
of concern for chronology, many of the details of chronological sequence are
either lost or no record was kept
B. Many of the original authors are unknown
C. Four major periods of development
1.
Vedic Period (2500-600 B.C.)
a. Literature of this period consists of the four Vedas (Rg Veda,
Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda)
b. Each Veda has four parts- Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and
Upanishads
i. Mantras (hymns) represent the onset of
Indian philosophical thought in poetic form
ii. Brahmanas are religious documents discussing
ritualistic precepts and sacrificial duties
iii. Aranyakas encourage meditation and provide
foundation for philosophical inquiry
iv. Upanishads are the meditations of
philosophers and inaugurate spiritual monism
2.
Epic Period (600 B.C.-200 A.D.)
a. Literature of this period is characterized by the indirect
presentation of philosophical doctrines (Ramayana, Mahabharata)
b. Includes the rise and development of Buddhism, Jainism, Saivism,
and Vaisnavism
c. The Dharmasastras on ethical and social philosophy were compiled
3.
Sutra Period (early centuries of Christian era)
a. Systematic treatises of various philosophical schools were
composed
b. Transition to self-conscious, critical reflection
c. Six Hindu systems of philosophy presented
i. Nyaya- logical realism
ii. Vaisesika- realistic pluralism
iii. Samkhya- evolutionary dualism
iv. Yoga- disciplined meditation
v. Purva Mimamsa- earlier interpretations of Vedas
related to conduct
vi. Uttara Mimamsa- later investigations of the
Vedas relating to knowledge (Vedanta-end of the Vedas)
4.
Scholastic Period (dates uncertain: approximately 500-1600 A.D.)
a. Commentaries composed to explain Sutras
b. Period of
great Indian philosophers- Samkara, Kumarila, Sridhara, Ramanuja, Madhva,
Vacaspati, Udayana, etc.
II. Spirit of Indian Philosophy
A. Represents a wide
variety of viewpoints
B. A set of common
themes permeates much of Indian philosophy
1. Concentration upon the spiritual
a. Both humans
and the universe are spiritual in essential character
b. Philosophy
and religion are closely related- philosophy is a spiritual endeavor
c. Asks, “What
is our spiritual destiny?”
2.
Intimate relationship between philosophy and life
a. Truth is efficacious in practical life
b. Truth must be lived, not merely known
c. Goal of philosophy is to realize ultimate truth and become
one with it
d. Emphasizes the importance of moral purification for the searcher
of truth
i. Renunciation of all petty desire, personal
motive, and practical interest
ii. Tranquility, self-control, patience, and
peace of mind are foundations for moral practice
iii. Desire for release (moksa) represents
supreme goal of life
3.
Characterized by introspective approach to reality
a. Philosophy is atmavidya- knowledge of the self
b. Truth is sought and to be found within
c. The subjective is of primary importance rather than the external
world
4. Tendency towards idealism and monism
a. Reality is ultimately one
b. Reality is ultimately spiritual
5.
Intuition is the only method by which the ultimate is known
a. Reason and intellectual knowledge are not enough
b. Reality must be experienced
c. Reason can demonstrate the truth, but not reach the truth
6.
Acceptance of authority
a. Specific doctrines may change, but general spirit continues
through the ages
b. Those who have realized truth in the past are guides
7.
Synthetic Quality
a. All aspects of life go together in a single comprehensive reality
b. Toleration of diverse perspectives
c. Directed towards the emancipation of suffering and freedom from
rebirth
d. Non-attachment characterizes the philosophical life
i. One is not concerned with results of action
ii. Avoidance of selfishness
iii. Not enslaved to worldly values
e. Humans reap what they sow
III. Value of Indian Philosophy
A. Humankind’s oldest
as well as most continuous speculation about the nature of reality
B. Concerned with the
eternal, unchanging truth
C. Landmarks of human
thought
D. Contributes to a
world perspective and philosophy
E. Important to
political unity and understanding
The Vedas
-the oldest Indo-European
literary and philosophical monument is the Rg Veda
-the word ‘veda’ signifies
wisdom
-while dates of composition
are relatively unknown, the Vedas go back to approximately 3500 B.C.
-Rg Veda comprises 1,017 hymns
divided into 10 books
-henotheistic tendencies
throughout the Vedas where many gods are exalted to the highest place of
worship for the creation, maintenance and destruction of the universe
-as religious speculation
proceeded and progressed, a single deity became necessary to explain the unity
of the universe
-a superpersonal monism
begins to gradually develop in the vedic literature
-a distinction is eventually
made between Brahman (the absolute reality) and Ishvara (the personal God)
-monotheism begins to give
way to philosophical monism and the belief in an impersonal, unknowable One
Deities enumerated:
Indra- the god of battle, heroism, and courage, the power
of thunderstorms
‘He destroys with
light’,’sovereign lord of heaven and earth’,’lord of prosperers and sages’
Agni- the god of fire
‘bestower of treasures,’ ‘son
of strength’,’his flame filled Heaven and Earth with light’
Visnu- the all-pervader
‘he in whose three wide
strides abide all creatures’, ‘wide-pacing bull’
Brhaspati- the god of prayer
‘gathered to himself the
cattle’, ‘forced apart the darkness’
Prthivi- Earth
‘far-spreading one’, ‘bright
one’
Dyaus- Heaven
‘protector from fearful evil’
Surya- the sun god
‘knows all creatures that are
born’, ‘visible to all’, ‘maker of light’, ‘the highest light’
Usas- Dawn
‘daughter of the sky’, ‘lady
of the light’
Vata- the wind god
‘speeds over the earth’,
‘friend of the Waters’, ‘wanders at his will,’ ‘his roarings are heard not
seen’
Vak- speech personified, means of communication between
men and gods, representative of Spirit
‘first of those who merit
worship’, ‘I make the man I love exceedingly mighty’, ‘my home is in the
waters’, ‘I hold together all existence’
Varuna- chief of the gods of the natural and moral order
‘guardeth well the thoughts
of men’, ‘visible over all is he’, ‘cherishes much wisdom’, ‘in whom all wisdom
centers’, ‘all the gods follow his decree’
Visvakarman- the “all worker”, creator of the universe
‘mighty in mind and power’,
‘knoweth all races and all things existing’
Purusa- humanity personified
‘Lord of immortality’, ‘one
fourth of him is all beings’, ‘three fourths of him is the immortal in Heaven’
Visvedevas- the pantheon of gods
‘to what is one, sages give
many a title’, ‘One All is lord of what is fixed and moving’,’inspirer of the
soul’
Prajapati- the unknown god
‘what God with our oblation
shall we worship?’, ‘generator of the earth’, ‘producer of the heavens’
The Upanishads
-concluding portion of the
Vedas
-basis of later Vedanta
philosophy
-the word ‘upanishad’ comes
from upa (near), ni (down), and sad (to sit)- referring to
sitting with a teacher or sage to learn truth
-the Upanishads number over
200
-although dates of authorship
are uncertain, the Upanishads are likely to have originated sometime during the
7th and 8th centuries B.C.
-we do not know who the
original authors of the Upanishads were
-the Upanishads are sruti
or revealed literature ushering forth from the experiences of sages
-their primary intent is to
lead one towards spiritual illumination, rather than systematic knowledge
-a single God who is the
source of all the earlier vedic gods is sought as the fundamental unity of
existence
-Brahman (the objective
reality and foundation of existence) is identified with Atman (the subjective
ultimate or center of personal experience)
-Truth is within us
-the Supreme is beyond words,
categories, and symbolic representations (nirguna Brahman)
-the Supreme is also creator
of manifested existence, and source of personal reality (saguna Brahman)
-a distinction is made
between the transcendent dimension of Brahman (pure in itself) and immanent
Brahman (in the world)
-prayer and meditation is a
way to ascend in consciousness by entering the Beyond that is within
-the inner ascent requires
moral preparation and purification
1
Sense of calm
2
Controlled
3
Quiet
4
Patiently enduring
5
Content
-ultimate goal is identity
with the Supreme
Isa
-shortest of the Upanishads
-discusses the nature of the way
of knowledge and the path of the unattached sage
-knowledge, supernatural or
otherwise, is not sufficient unto itself for true wisdom
-‘covet not the wealth of
anyone’, ‘unmoving, the One is swifter than the mind’, ‘It is within all
this’,’It is outside all of this’
Kena
-asks “by whom?” is the
universe created, sustained, and continually destroyed
-the singular Atman is
the source of all inner and external movements
-those who say they
understand the Supreme do not have true knowledge, while those who say they do
not understand are the ones who possess true knowledge
-‘It is conceived of by him
by whom It is not conceived of’,’when known by an awakening, It is conceived
of’
Katha
-perhaps most philosophical
of Upanishads
-Naciketas chooses knowledge
above worldly goods, the good over the merely pleasant
-knowledge of Atman
comes by way of intuitive insight, not through reason
-‘not with wealth is a man to
be satisfied’,’the wise one (Atman) is not born nor dies’,’more minute
than the minute, greater than the great’,’He is to be obtained only by the one
whom he chooses’,’though He is hidden in all things, that Self shines not
forth’,’an intelligent man should suppress his speech and his mind’,’the wise
who perceive Him as standing in oneself , they, and no others, have eternal
happiness’,’His form is not to be beheld’
-existential hierarchy:
1
Senses
2
Objects of sense
3
Mind
4
Intellect- buddhi
5
Great Self - Atman
6
Unmanifest- avyakta
7
Person
8
Nothing at all
Prasna
-presents answers to
philosophical questions
-apparently a late Upanishad
-“O friend, it is to the
supreme Self (Atman) that everything here resorts”
Mundaka
-most poetical of Upanishads
-two kinds of knowledge
presented: higher (para) and lower (apara)
-‘eternal, all-pervading, omnipresent,
exceedingly subtle, that is the Imperishable, which the wise perceive as the
source of beings’, ‘the world that was not made is not won by what is done’,
‘this Self (Atman) is not to be obtained by instruction, nor by intellect, nor
by much learning’,’he, verily, who knows that supreme Brahman, becomes very
Brahman’
Mandukya
-presents four states of
consciousness: waking, dreaming, profound sleep and turiya
-‘Om!- this syllable is this
whole world’,’for truly, everything here is Brahman’
Taittiriya
-description of ethical
teachings
-presents the doctrine of the
“Five Sheaths” of the self- food, breath, mind, intellect, and bliss
-describes the progression to
the ultimate bliss of Brahman
-‘speak the truth, practice
virtue’, ‘He who knows Brahman attains the highest’,’food is the chief of
beings’, ‘breath is the life of beings’,’Brahman is food, austerity, breath,
mind, understanding, and bliss’
Aitareya
-life after death discussed
-Atman as intellect
proposed
-‘The world is guided by
intelligence. The basis is
intelligence. Brahman is intelligence.’
Chandogya
-one of the oldest and best
known
-status of the individual is
determined by character rather than birth
-the psychical principle
within (Atman) is identical with the universal principle of nature (Brahman)
-the sun is the eye of
Brahman, wind the breath, space the body, wealth the bladder, earth the feet
-progression to Brahman-
speech, mind, conception, thought, meditation, understanding, strength, food,
water, heat, space, memory, hope, life,
-‘Tat tvam asi (That art
thou)’,’all speech is held together by Om’,’this whole world is
Brahman’,’into him I shall enter on departing hence’,’Brahman is joy’,’joy (ka)
–verily, that is the same as the Void (kha)’,’in the beginning this
world was just being, one only, without a second’,’that which is the finest
essence- this whole world has that as its self’,’one must desire to understand
the truth’
Brhadaranyaka
-longest Upanishad
-Atman portrayed as
universal, undifferentiated consciousness
-the absolute is
indescribable
-‘he is a person’,’whoever
thus knows “I am Brahman!” becomes this All’,’from this Self come all vital
energies, all worlds, all gods, all beings’,’there are assuredly two forms of Brahman:
the formed and the formless, the mortal and the immortal, the stationary and
the moving, the actual and the yon’,’of immortality, however, there is no hope
through wealth’,’for love of the Self all is dear’,’this great Being, infinite,
limitless, is just a mass of knowledge’,’one becomes good by good action, bad
by bad action’,’let a Brahmin become disgusted with learning and become as a
child’,’do not over-question’,’in the space within the heart lies the ruler of
all, the lord of all, the king of all’,’that Self is not this, it is not
that’,’restrain yourselves, give, be compassioonate’
Svetasvatara
-later Upanishad
-goes in the direction of
theism
-‘Over both the perishable
and the self the One God rules. By
meditation upon Him, by union with Him, and by entering into His being, more
and more, there is finally cessation from every illusion’,’truly there is
nothing higher than that to be known’,’this whole world is pervaded with beings
that are parts of Him’,’His form is not to be beheld. No one soever sees Him with the eye. They who thus know Him with heart and mind as abiding in the
heart become immortal’,’by knowing God one is released from all fetters’
Kausitaki
-prana (breath/spirit) is the
prime mover of the universe and a part of our higher selves
-‘if there were no elements
of being, there would be no elements of intelligence’,’this same breathing
spirit, in truth, is the intelligential self; it is bliss, ageless,
immortal’,’He is the world-protector’
Maitri
-two forms of Atman
enumerated- the noumenal and phenomenal
-the bhutatman reaps
the fruits of good and bad action
-‘what is the good of
enjoyment of desires?’,’by knowledge (vidya), by austerity (tapas),
and by meditation (cinta) Brahman is apprehended’,’incomprehensible is
that supreme Self, unlimited, unborn, not to be reasoned about, unthinkable- He
whose self is space!’,’freedom from desire is like the choicest extract from
the choicest treasure’,’the mind, in truth, is for mankind the means of bondage
and release’
The Bhagavad-Gita
-deals with both metaphysics
and ethics
-authorship attributed to
Vyasa
-the Absolute is not merely
impersonal
-God exceeds both the
infinite and merely finite
-the Supreme is present in
the individual
-Krsna represents the
redeeming power in the cosmic creation as a divine incarnation (avatarana) in
human form
-God as savior must manifest
in times of peril
-delineates yogas to help
liberate the self and reach a new understanding of human existence and meaning
-jnana-yoga- the way of knowledge
-bhakti-yoga- the way of devotion
-karma-yoga- the way of action
-the various yogas are
complementary to one another and help facilitate inner growth
Quotes:
“Know thou that that by which
all this is pervaded is indestructible”
“In this path, no effort is
ever lost and no obstacle prevails”
“Let not the fruits of action
be thy motive”
“An even mind in success and
failure”
“When his spirit is content
in itself, then is he called stable in intelligence”
“From attachment springs
desire, and from desire comes anger”
“For the unpeaceful, how can
there be happiness?”
“Do thou thine allotted work,
for action is better than inaction”
“Man attains to the highest
by doing work without attachment”
“As men approach me so do I
accept them”
“He who is satisfied by
whatever comes by chance, who has passed beyond the dualities (of pleasure and
pain), who is free from jealousy, who remains the same in success and failure-
even when he acts, he is not bound”
“God is that which is to be
attained by him who realizes God in his works”
“Knowledge as a sacrifice is
greater than any material sacrifice”
“There is nothing on earth
equal in purity to wisdom”
“He whose self is harmonized
by yoga sees the Self abiding in all beings and all beings in the Self;
everywhere he sees the same”
“the mind is difficult to
curb and restless, but it can be controlled… by constant practice and
non-attachment”
“I am the intelligence of the
intelligent. I am the splendour of the
splendid”
“I am alike to all
beings. None is hateful or dear to me”
“I am death, the
all-devouring and the origin of things that are yet to be”
“But thou canst not behold Me
with this [human] eye of yours; I will bestow on thee the supernatural eye”
“Man is of the nature of his
faith; what his faith is, that, verily, he is.”
“Devoted each to his own duty
man attains perfection”
-Buddhism (from buddhi
meaning to awaken) arose approximately 2,500 years ago and originated with the
enlightenment experiences of Siddhartha Gotama “The Buddha”
-In 563 BC, Siddhartha Gotama
was born into a royal family in Lumbini, now known as Nepal
-At the age of 29, Siddhartha
began to realize that wealth would not bring him happiness and set upon a quest
for true enlightenment and a way to overcome suffering. After approximately six years of intense
meditation, Siddhartha entered into a state of enlightened being. For the remainder of his life, Siddhartha
taught the principles of the ‘middle way’ until he died at the age of 80.
-The Buddha takes up some of
the thoughts of the early Upanishads and reformulates them to apply to modern
life
-The Four Noble Truths:
-All things eventually pass
away including our dreams and hopes, our fears and desires. Nothing can overcome the supremacy of death.
-Life is a stream of
becoming. There is nothing permanent in
the empirical self.
-Suffering is caused by
ignorance (avidya) and selfish craving (tanha).
-When we rid ourselves of ignorance
and selfish craving, we are prepared for nirvana- freedom from
ignorance, selfish craving, and suffering.
Nirvana leads to the attainment of wisdom (prajna) and
compassion (karuna).
-The Eightfold Path to
Enlightenment:
-The Five Primary Precepts:
-Compassion represents the
pinnacle of enlightened being in thought, speech and deed- caring, giving,
listening, and attending to the real needs of others is a primary goal of
Buddhist philosophy and ethics. One
must be the truth to know the truth.
-The Buddha remains
relatively silent upon matters of metaphysical import in an attempt to stay
focused on the plight of human existence and the way to overcome suffering.
-Hinayana Buddhism:
-Mahayana Buddhism:
Confucius (551-479 BC)
-
Biographic Information-
born in the state of Lu in modern Shantung, he was a descendant of a noble but
fairly poor family, apparently studied under no particular teacher but became
one of the most learned persons of his era, began his career as a teacher in
his twenties and thirties, dedicated his entire life to education, he died at
the age of 73
-
The works of Confucius
help lay the foundations for Chinese civilization
-
Confucius helped shape
one of the dominant characteristics of Chinese philosophy, namely, humanism
-
He does not discuss
spiritual beings or refer to the possibility of life after death
-
Confucius concentrated on
the plight of human welfare- the nature of a good society, harmonious human
relations, and proper government
-
He advocated a form of
government based on virtue and moral example than upon punishment or force
-
Confucius believed in
the perfectibility of all men and women
-
He does not adhere to
the traditional caste system or prescribe to the idea of hereditary
nobility. Rather, Confucius taught that
nobility is based on quality of character.
-
Confucius contemplated
the nature of ideal man instead of a supernatural being
-
The Concept of the Mean-
more than simply moderation, the mean represents the central, balanced, and
harmonious state of being for both the individual and society
-
Jen- the perfect man or woman. He or she is a person who abides by the Golden Rule- “wishing to
establish his own character, he also establishes the character of others, and
wishing to be prominent himself, he also helps others to be prominent.”
-
Notable quotes from The
Analects:
1:2 “Filial piety and brotherly respect are the
root of humanity.”
1:14 “The superior man does not seek fulfillment
of his appetite nor comfort in his lodging….Such a person may be said to love
learning.”
1:16 “[A good person] does not worry about being
known by others but rather worries about not knowing them.”
2:24 “To see what is right and not do it is
cowardice.”
4:5 “Wealth and honor are what every person
desires. But if they have been obtained
in violation of moral principles, they must not be kept. Poverty and humble station are what every
person dislikes. But if they can be
avoided only in violation of moral principles, they must not be avoided.”
4:11 “The superior person thinks of virtue, the
inferior person thinks of possessions.”
4:12 “If one’s acts are motivated by profit, he
will have many enemies.”
5:25 “It is my ambition to comfort the old, to be
faithful to friends, and to cherish the young.”
6:18 “To know it [learning or the Way] is not as
good as to love it, and to love it is not as good as to take delight in it.”
7:7 “There has never been anyone who came with
as little a present as dried meat [as tuition] that I have refused to teach him
something.”
7:15 “With course rice to eat, with water to
drink and with a bent arm for a pillow, there is still joy. Wealth and honor obtained through
unrighteousness are but floating clouds to me.”
8:8 “Let a person be stimulated by poetry,
established by the rules of propriety, and perfected by music.”
8:13 “Have sincere faith and love learning. Be not afraid to die for pursuing the good
Way.”
11:11 “If we are not yet able to serve humankind,
how can we serve spiritual beings.”
12:1 “To master oneself and return to propriety
is humanity.”
12:2 “Do not do to others what you do not want
them to do to you.”
12:19 “In your government what is the need of
killing? If you desire what is good, the people will be good. The character of a ruler is like wind and
that of the people is like grass. In
whatever direction the wind blows, the grass always bends.”
13:6 “If a ruler sets himself right, he will be
followed without his command. If he
does not set himself right, even his commands will not be obeyed.”
13:16 “There is good government when those who are
near are happy and those far away desire to come.”
13:27 “A person who is strong, resolute, simple,
and slow to speak is close to jen.”
14:36 Someone said, “What do you think of repaying
hatred with virtue?” Confucius said,
“In that case what are you going to repay virtue with? Rather, repay hatred with uprightness and repay
virtue with virtue.”
15:20 “The superior person seeks room for
improvement in oneself, the inferior person seeks it in others.”
15:38 “In education there should be no class
distinction.”
16:1 “For when wealth is equally distributed,
there will not be poverty; when there is harmony, there will be no problem of
there being too few people; and when there are security and peace, there will
be no danger to the state…”
17:2 “By nature humans are alike, through
practice they have become far apart.”
·
More commentaries have
been written about it than any other Chinese classic.
·
5,250 words
·
More English
translations than any other Chinese book.
·
Combination of poetry,
philosophical speculation, and mystical reflection.
·
Tao- the meaning or way of life, te- the
appropriate use of life, ching- text or classic
·
Suggests that people
ought to live life according to instinct and conscience.
·
Legend suggests that Lao
Tzu attempted to escape the decadence he found in the hearts of his
contemporaries while riding a water buffalo.
As he reached the limits of the kingdom, the gate keeper requested that
he record his philosophical ideas in writing for others.
Notable Quotes from Tao-te
Ching:
Ch. 1 - “The Tao that can be
told of is not the eternal Tao;
The
name that can be named is not the eternal name.
The
Nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth;
The
named is the mother of all things.”
Ch. 2 - “Being and non-being
produce each other”
Ch. 3 - “Do not exalt the
worthy, so that the people shall not compete.
Do not value rare treasures, so that the people shall not
steal.
Do not display objects of desire, so that the people’s
hearts shall not be disturbed.”
Ch. 4 - “Tao is empty (like a
bowl),
It may be used but its capacity is never exhausted.”
Ch. 7 -“Heaven is eternal and
Earth everlasting.
They can be eternal and everlasting because they
do not exist for themselves.”
Ch.8 - “The best person is
like water.
Water is good, it benefits all things and does not
compete with them.
It dwells in lowly places that all disdain.
This is why it is so near to Tao.”
Ch. 9 - “When gold and jade
fill your hall,
You will not be able to keep them,
To be proud with honor and wealth
Is to cause one’s own downfall.”
Ch. 10 - “Can you love the
people and govern the state without cunning?”
Ch. 14 - “We look at it (Tao)
and do not see it;
Its name is The Invisible.
We listen to it and do not hear it;
Its name is The Inaudible.
We touch it and do not find it;
Its name is the Subtle (formless).”
Ch. 16 -“Attain complete
vacuity,
Maintain steadfast quietude.”
“To know the eternal is called enlightenment.”
“The person who knows the eternal is all-embracing.
Being all-embracing, s/he is impartial.
Being impartial, s/he is akin to a king or queen.”
Ch. 17- “The best rulers are
those whose existence is barely known by the people.
The next best are those who are loved and praised…”
Ch. 19- “Let people hold onto
these:
Manifest plainness,
Embrace simplicity,
Reduce selfishness,
Have few desires.”
Ch. 20- “Abandon learning and
there will be no sorrow.”
“The multitude all possess more than enough, I alone seem
to have lost all.”
Ch. 22 -“To yield is to be
preserved whole.
To be bent is to become straight.
To be empty is to be full.
To be worn out is to be renewed.
To have little is to possess.
To have plenty is to be perplexed.
Therefore the sage embraces the One
And becomes the model of the world.”
Ch. 23-“The person who
follows virtue is identified with virtue.”
Ch. 25-“It may be considered
the mother of the universe.
I do not know its name; I call it Tao.”
Ch. 27-“A good traveler
leaves no track or trace.”
Chuang Tzu (399-295 BC)
-Nature is spontaneous, in
constant flux, and incessantly transformational.
-Nature binds all things into
one- equalizing all things and opinions.
-The person of purity
harmonizes with Nature and does not attempt to impose human will upon it.
-The supreme goal of the
individual is spiritual emancipation and peace.
-Selfishness in the form of
wealth, fame, bias, or subjectivity is abandoned to the higher dictates of
unity with Nature.
-One does not need to quarrel
over right and wrong.
-The Tao in Chuang Tzu is
transcendental.
-An emphasis is made on
following one’s own inner nature, nourishing it, and adapting it to
environment.
-The writings of Chuang Tzu made
a tremendous impact on Zen Buddhism and Chinese landscape painting and poetry.
-Not much is known about the
person behind Chuang Tzu except that his personal name was likely Chou, he was
once a small official who received, and later declined, an offer to become
prime minister.
Notable Quotes: